Regions University

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【简介】 Regions University

【专业】 Regions University

  • Regions University相关问题

    美国国防采办大学(DAU)在哪个州?

    很多州都有分校!

    Regional Campuses and Satellite Locations

    Capital and Northeast Region
    DAU Ft. Belvoir, Virginia
    DAU Ft. Monmouth
    DAU Hanscom AFB, Boston

    DSMC-School of Program Managers, Fort Belvoir, VA

    Mid-Atlantic Region
    California, MD
    Chester, VA
    Kaiserslautern, Germany
    Norfolk, VA

    Midwest Region
    Main Campus, DAU Midwest, Kettering, OH
    DAU (DSCC) Columbus, OH
    DAU Rock Island, IL
    DAU Sterling Heights, MI

    South Region
    Huntsville Alabama
    DAU MacDill AFB
    DAU Eglin AFB - Eglin, FL.
    Warner Robins AFB

    West Region
    DAU San Diego, California - Campus
    DAU Port Hueneme, California
    DAU Los Angeles, California
    Hawaii

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  • 介绍内蒙古民族大学校园的英语作文

    My Hometown—Inner Mongolia

    Good morning ladies and gentlemen, today, I would like to introduce my beloved hometown—Inner Mongolia to all of you. It has been 57 years since the birth of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region on May 1st, 1947. Dominated by the Mongolian nationality, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region is located on the northern frontier of China. The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region occupies an area of 1.18 million square kilometers and has a population of about 20 million people who represent a score of different nationalities. Every time when people talk about Inner Mongolia, they’ll come down to the vast grassland. Yes, the Inner Mongolian prairie area makes up a quarter of the total grassland area of the country. On the boundless expanse of the Inner Mongolian prairie are living numerous sheep, Cattle and horses, on which our Mongolian have lived for generations. That is why the grassland is eulogized as “cradle of life”. There are two vast grasslands in my hometown—Hulun Buir Grasslands and Xilin Gol Grasslands which are both world-famous regions. People in Inner Mongolia are famous for their bravery, enthusiasm and hospitality. No mater where you are from, as long as you come to a herdsman’s house, you will be warmly entertained with roasted whole lamb and milk tea, and what’s more, you can also appreciate beautiful Mongolian songs and elegant dances. It is not exaggerating to say Mongolians are born singers and dancers. The moment you set your feet on the grassland areas you will discover it is indeed a real land of songs and dances.

    Today’s Inner Mongolia still maintains her ethnic characteristics and at the dame time, she tries to keep pace with the development of the modern world. Ordus is a worldwide well-known brand, Yili and Mengniu are both the famous dairy industries, which have greatly improved the living standard of our Mongolian people. And I’m sure, our Mongolian people will make great effort to contribute to our hometown. As a college student, I know quite clearly that my mission is to master solid knowledge and one day do good to my beloved hometown.

    我的家乡——内蒙古

    早上好,女士们先生们,今天我想给大家介绍一下我的家乡——内蒙古。内蒙古自治区区自1947年5月1日成立以来,已有57年的历史了。坐落在中国北部边陲的内蒙古自治区是一个以蒙古族为主的地区。它拥有118万平方公里的土地面积,2000万来自不同民族的人民共同居住在这里。

    每当人们谈到内蒙古都会想到辽阔的草原,是的,内蒙古的草原面积占全国总草原面积的1/4。成群的羊儿,牛儿和马儿生活在这片无边无际的草原上,是它们养育了世世代代的草原儿女,因此,草原也被赞颂为“生命的摇篮”。我们的家乡有两大世界著名的草原——呼伦贝尔大草原和锡林郭勒大草原。蒙古族是一个勇敢、热情、好客的民族,如果你去到牧民的家里,无论你来自哪儿,热情的牧民都会用烤全羊和奶茶款待你,同时,你还可以欣赏到优美的蒙古族歌舞。蒙古族人民天生能歌善舞,这一点儿也不夸张,在你踏上草原的那一刻,你就会发现这确实是一片歌舞的海洋。

    今天的内蒙古仍然保留着她的民族特色,同时,她还时刻紧跟时代的步伐。鄂尔多斯是闻名世界的知名品牌,伊利和蒙牛两大乳业集团是内蒙古经济发展的支柱产业。我相信,草原人民一定会继续努力为家乡的发展做出贡献,作为一名大学生,我会掌握好扎实的知识,回报我可爱的家乡。

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  • 请问 桂林电子科技大学信息科技学院 用英语应该怎么说?谢谢!

    桂林电子科技大学信息科技学院 用英语是:Institute of Information Technology of Guet

    桂林电子科技大学信息科技学院基础设施:

    学院规划用地536亩,一期工程占地389亩,已完成建设并投入使用,校舍建筑面积达13余万平方米,校园环境优美,生活条件完备。学院被评为“自治区卫生优秀学校”,学生公寓被评为“广西高校示范性标准化学生公寓”,学生食堂被评为“广西高校标准化学生食堂”。学院二期工程已奠基。

    学院占地面积近35万平方米,已建成教学、行政、宿舍、餐厅等各种配套设施,并配有英语自主学习中心、计算机基础实验室、通信网络实验室、数字系统实验室、电子线路实验室、网络实验室、CAD/CAM实验室、电教室、工商管理实验室、电子商务实验室和图书馆等现代化教学设施,是具有桂林山水及学科特色的生态型数字化成熟校园。

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  • Regions University相关资讯

    请问今年还制冰吗?地球球?

    #托福奇葩背景知识系列#托福听力里面有很多让人觉得难以理解的内容,其实回顾内容的时候会发现并不难,只是听的时候由于缺乏相关背景知识,让我们的推导能力受到了限制。所以,我们推出了【托福奇葩背景知识系列】,不仅涨分数,还涨姿势哦!

    摁头看英文

    The Milankovitch cycles describe how relatively slight changes in Earth's movement affect the planet's climate. The cycles are named for Milutin Milankovitch, a Serbian astrophysicist who began investigating the cause of Earth's ancient ice ages in the early 1900s, according to the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH).

    Earth experienced it's most recent ice ages during the Pleistocene epoch, which lasted from 2.6 million years ago to 11,700 years ago. For thousands of years at a time, even the more temperate regions of the globe were covered with glaciers and ice sheets, according to the University of California Museum of Paleontology.

    To determine how Earth could experience such vast changes in climate over time, Milankovitch incorporated data about the variations of Earth's position with the timeline of the ice ages during the Pleistocene. He studied Earth's variations for the last 600,000 years and calculated the varying amounts of solar radiation due to Earth's changing orbital parameters. In doing so, he was able to link lower amounts of solar radiation in the high northern latitudes to previous European ice ages, according to AMNH.

    Milankovitch's calculations and charts, which were published in the 1920s and are still used today to understand past and future climate, led him to conclude that there are three different positional cycles, each with its own cycle length, that influence the climate on Earth: the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the planet's axial tilt and the wobble of its axis.

    Eccentricity

    The Earth orbits the sun in an oval shape called an ellipse, with the sun at one of the two focal points (foci). Ellipticity is a measure of the shape of the oval and is defined by the ratio of the semiminor axis (the length of the short axis of the ellipse) to the semimajor axis (the length of the long axis of the ellipse), according to Swinburne University. A perfect circle, where the two foci meet in the center, has an ellipticity of 0 (low eccentricity), and an ellipse that is being squished to almost a straight line has an eccentricity of nearly 1 (high eccentricity).

    The Earth's orbit slightly changes its eccentricity over the course of 100,000 years from nearly 0 to 0.07 and back again, according to NASA's Earth Observatory. When the Earth's orbit has a higher eccentricity, the planet's surface receives 20 to 30 percent more solar radiation when it's at perihelion (the shortest distance between the Earth and sun each orbit) than when it is at aphelion (the largest distance between the Earth and sun each orbit). When the Earth's orbit has a low eccentricity, there is very little difference in the amount of solar radiation that is received between perihelion and aphelion.

    Today, the eccentricity of Earth's orbit is 0.017. At perihelion, which occurs on or around Jan. 3 each year, Earth's surface receives about 6 percent more solar radiation than at aphelion, which occurs on or around July 4.

    Axial tilt

    The tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of its orbit is the reason that we experience seasons. Slight changes in the tilt changes the amount of solar radiation falling on certain locations of Earth, according to Indiana University Bloomington. Over the course of about 41,000 years, the tilt of the Earth's axis, also known as obliquity, varies between 21.5 and 24.5 degrees.

    When the axis is at its minimal tilt, the amount of solar radiation doesn't change much between summer and winter for much of Earth's surface and therefore, seasons are less severe. This means that summer at the poles is cooler, which allows snow and ice to persist through summer and into winter, eventually building up into enormous ice sheets.

    Today, the Earth is tilted 23.5 degrees, and slowly decreasing, according to EarthSky.

    Precession

    Earth wobbles just slightly as it spins on its axis, similarly to when a spinning top begins to slow down. This wobble, known as precession, is primarily caused by the gravity of the sun and moon pulling on Earth's equatorial bulges. The wobble doesn't change the tilt of Earth's axis, but the orientation changes. Over about 26,000 years, Earth wobbles around in a complete circle, according to Washington State University.

    Now, and for the past several thousands of years, Earth's axis has been pointed north more or less toward Polaris, also known as the North Star. But Earth's gradual precessional wobble means that Polaris isn't always the North Star. About 5,000 years ago the Earth was pointed more toward another star, called Thubin. And, in approximately 12,000 years, the axis will have traveled a bit more around its precession circle and will point toward Vega, which will become the next North Star.

    As the Earth completes a precession cycle, the orientation of the planet is altered with respect to perihelion and aphelion. If a hemisphere is pointed toward the sun during perihelion (shortest distance between Earth and sun), it will be pointed away during aphelion (largest distance between Earth and sun), and the opposite is true for the other hemisphere. The hemisphere that's pointed toward the sun during perihelion and away during aphelion experiences more extreme seasonal contrasts than the other hemisphere.

    Currently, the southern hemisphere's summer occurs near perihelion and winter near aphelion, which means the southern hemisphere experiences more extreme seasons than the northern hemisphere.

    中文加油站

    米兰科维奇假说

    本世纪初南斯拉夫学者米兰科维奇(Milankovitch,1920)提出了第四纪冰期成因的天文假说。他认为夏半年的日照量的减少是冰期形成的主要因素。这是由于在北半球高纬度地区夏天如果比较冷,就可使冬天积雪不融化,使一年中冰雪总量增加,这就进一步促使地球冰雪面积扩张,进而增加地球对日光的反照率。因此,夏半年日照的小量变化都可能对冰盖消长有明显作用。

    该假说的原理主要与三个因素有关:

    1. 地球形状和轨道变化

    地球绕太阳的轨道并不是一个完美的圆形。它更像一个椭圆。不过,轨道的形状并不是始终如一的;它随时间变化,大概一百年的时间左右。有时它更圆一些,有时更椭圆。并且当地球轨道更加椭圆的时候呢,地球事实上在一年的某些时候离太阳更近。这使得地球,特别是北半球更加暖和。行星大多数的冰川都在北半球,如果那里太暖和了,就不会再形成冰川了。

    2. 地轴倾斜

    地轴就是虚构的穿过地心的一个杆。根据它倾斜的角度,季节可能更加极端或者不极端。这使得冬天更冷,夏天更热,或者就像一些人认为状况一样,使得夏季不热冬季不冷。更重要的是,冬季不冷,就像我之前说的一样,这会使得冰川不再形成,或者使冰川融化。

    3. 旋进运动

    旋进基本上是地轴旋转方向的变化。因为旋进非常的复杂,即便花费一百年我们也解释不清楚。并且这些细节也超出了我们学习的范围。你们需要知道的关键是这三种运动,他们是周期性的,并且他们共同产生了复杂但是规律的地球气候的变化,并且导致了冰川的增长和衰退。

    当20世纪20年代刚提出米兰科维奇假说的时候,许多同行都持怀疑态度。米兰科维奇假说确实没有任何的证据。事实上,在20世纪70年代之前都不能有任何支持这个假说的证据,因为直到那时海洋学家才能够到海底钻孔并且从深海的海底取样,然后由地质学家对样本进行分析。从样本中能够得出几十万年的关于海洋气候的历史状况。这些证明了地球气候的变化正如米兰科维奇假说所描述的一样。这些证据是对米兰科维奇假说的一个非常有利的支持,直到20世纪80年代多数人才接受了这一理论。

    打开TPO,听ETS给你讲晚安故事

    TPO17L2 Milankovitch Hypothesis

    重点词汇:

    variationn. 变化,差异

    orbitn. 轨道;v. 绕……轨道而行

    solar energy太阳能

    ellipticaladj. 椭圆形的;(语言)难懂、晦涩的

    consistentadj. 一贯的,一致的

    axis tilt地轴倾斜,斜轴

    rotationn. 旋转,循环,轮流

    processionn. 行进

    beyond one’s scope超出…范围;为…力所不及

    skepticaladj. 怀疑的

    oceanographern. 海洋学家

    deposit n.沉淀物

    calciten. 钙

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  • 万晴川:论明代通俗小说的政治书写—以重大历史事件题材小说为例

    无论是从逻辑还是历史层面考察,文学与政治始终纠缠在一起,难以分割。当代美国文学批评家弗雷德里克·詹姆逊认为:“没有什么事物是非社会的和非历史的,事实上,一切事物‘在最终的分析中’说到底都是政治的”(詹姆逊20)。

    《政治无意识》

    文学文本是容纳个人政治欲望、阶级话语和文化革命的一个多元空间,在文学创作、阅读、批评中,政治视角是一条“绝对的地平线”(詹姆逊17)要之,政治性不仅存在于文学的外部研究,也可以成为文学研究的内在维度。

    受儒家小说教化观的影响,中国古代小说与政治的关系历来就很密切,政治影响小说家的创作,小说创作辅翼政治运作,至唐宋时期,这种关系更为突出,唐宋传奇作家不仅“具有强烈的历史意识和政治忧患意识”(李剑国 韩瑞亚1),而且还把小说创作当作攻击政敌的武器,胡应麟指出:

    唐宋文人“乃若私怀不逞,假手铅椠,如《周秦行纪》《东轩笔录》之类,同于武夫之刃,谗人之舌者,此大弊也。然天下万世,公论具在,亦亡益焉。”(胡应麟166)

    特别是宋元时期,小说这种文体更深入地介入文人士大夫的政治生活中。南宋晁公武指出:“近时为小说者,始多及人之善恶,甚者肆喜怒之私,变是非之实,以误后世,至于誉桓温而毁陶侃、陆贽者有之。”(晁公武51)

    章学诚说宋儒“好名之习,作诗话以党伐同异”,致使“说部流弊,至于诬善党奸,诡名托姓。前人所论,如《龙城录》《碧云騢》之类,盖亦不可胜数,史家所以有别择稗野之道也。事有纪载可以互证,而文则惟意之所予夺,诗话之不可凭,或甚于说部也。”(章学诚560)

    章学诚这里举称的《龙城录》《碧云騢》等诗话,其实是诗话体小说。而且,随着通俗小说的崛起及影响日著,这一新兴文体很快被运用到政治斗争中,而且花样翻新。

    《文史通义》

    有的企图借小说影响最高统治者,如南宋初年秀州民变领袖邵青归附朝廷后,请内侍将他的故事编为小说,在高宗面前讲说,以示忠心不二,博取高宗的信任。

    有的利用小说粉饰战绩,如南宋宝佑四年(1156),宋蒙军队达成停火协议后,贾似道隐匿和议之事,上章诡称诸路大捷。宋理宗不明真相,下诏论功行赏。景定元年(1260)七月,贾似道命其门客廖莹中、翁应尤等撰《福华编》,矜夸贾似道之功,并遣王六大夫等艺人在民间讲说,以致“听者纷纷”。

    明代政治生态恶化,在不同政治集团、南北地主阶级、文臣武将等各种层面之间,都存在着尖锐的矛盾冲突和利益之争。

    唐代党争主要发生在士大夫间,影响面小;而明代党争则与皇权、内阁、阉党、地域等多重因素扭结在一起,非常复杂;且明代媒介发达,政治生活下移,主动站队、参与政治斗争者从朝廷重臣到在野士夫、从底层文人到普通民众几乎皆有,其牵涉面之广,参与人员之多,历时之长,斗争之烈,影响之大,都超迈以往。

    可以这么说,政治是晚明士人的生活常态,影响了他们的命运再造和身份认同,从而也影响到小说的创作与传播。

    晚明各种政治势力善于动用各种媒介资源进行斗争,如邸报、“妖书”、私揭等,都被用来制造舆论,攻击政敌,其中影响最大的是书籍印刷品。

    《中国明代新闻传播史》

    尹韵公指出:明代的图书出版给予了明代的社会舆论以强大和深刻的影响。如果说言论是社会舆论中的“无形”部分,那么书籍则是社会舆论中的有形部分。有形的比无形的更有力量,更成气候(尹韵公267-268)。

    从某种意义上讲,晚明的书籍出版参与了当时的政治与社会纷争,成为政治斗争的最好注脚。《皇明中兴圣烈传》第二回便称:“天下最可畏的,莫过于士子的舌头,士子的笔头。”(《古本小说集成》本)

    这种例子可谓不胜枚举,甚至弱势群体也懂得利用通俗文学来喊冤,赢得社会舆论的同情和支持。如华亭高官董其昌家居时,强夺陆家仆人女儿为妾,于是就有人据此创作了《黑白传》《五精八魂记》小说,讽刺董其昌,一时哄传。

    说书人钱二到处说唱,董其昌将钱二及一个听客范生捉拿锁打,范郁闷而死,范母带着儿孙媳到董家说理,又遭到董家父子凌辱,于是范家对外发布《冯氏合族冤揭》,揭露董家的劣行,随即激起公愤,但董宦自恃有力,反向省级两院告恶状,五学生员随即发布《五学檄》,用词激烈,张大其事;一些路见不平的民众也利用私揭进行传播,“儿童妇女竞传‘若要柴米强,先杀董其昌’之谣;至于刊刻大书‘兽宦董其昌,枭孽董祖常’等揭纸沿街塞路,以致徽州、湖广、川陕、山西等处客商共有冤揭粘帖,娼妓、龟子、游船等项,亦各有报纸相传,真正怨声载道,穷天謦地矣。”终于导致火烧董家之事(《中国野史集成》第27册685-708)。

    《中国野史集成》

    通俗小说在信息传播中发挥着重要的作用,正如台湾学者王鸿泰指出:“小说在明末清初期间具有特殊的社会意义——它提供了一个公众化的管道,或者说,它本身就是一个‘公众场域’,就像个开放性的虚拟舞台一般,小说在明清时期己然成为个别信息与公众会面的场域。”(王鸿泰43-44)

    这样,小说的创作和传播已不仅是詹姆逊所谓的“政治无意识”,而是有鲜明的政治倾向性。小说家们通过对这些重大政治事件的解读或重构,自觉参与当时的历史排场,由于彼此政治立场不同,因而观点针锋相对,文场遂成战场,“明季党人,以词曲作戈梃,亦一奇事。”(吴梅442)

    在大是大非的问题争执中夹杂着个人恩怨等复杂因素。总之,各种政治力量将文场作为政治角斗场,小说创作成为朝廷政治斗争在文学领域中的延伸。

    本文试图通过几组反映明代重大历史事件的小说,剖析明代小说的政治书写特点。

    1、历史大事件的性质之争

    历史大事件的性质之争,典型地体现在有关“靖难之役”的激烈争论上。按照儒家的正统史观,朱棣属于篡位,建文占据道德高地;但朱棣及其子孙又是当权派,拥有操控舆论的绝对优势。所以两种势力之间有着很大的张力,三百年来,一些不同的政治势力围绕着“靖难之役”的性质反复交锋,而小说创作也参与其中。

    《皇明史概》

    朱棣即位后,立即实行“革除”运动,以确立其帝统的合法性,当时的“文学柄用之臣”便积极配合,一方面删改历史,将建文朝史事清除得“只字不留”(朱国桢619),试图抹去人们对这段历史的记忆。

    有关“靖难”史皆以“革除”名之;其次“自饰其非”,美化朱棣的“靖难”之举,对建文君臣则“肆以丑言诋之”(张朝瑞652)。

    如《奉天靖难记》将朱标父子塑造成荒淫无道,暴戾无常的形象;而朱棣则文韬武略,深得众人拥戴。这部史著其实是披着史书外衣的小说。

    嘉靖年间的白话长篇小说《承运传》仍未完全摆脱“革除”运动的影响,小说把朱棣描述成“应天承运”的“真命天子”,“靖难”是保基业、安社稷、定黎民的正义之举。不过由于时代变迁,作者的态度有所缓和,小说把矛头指向建文臣属,而建文本人则是受奸臣蒙蔽的受害者。

    朱棣死后,后继者对“靖难”史有过不同程度的纠偏,特别是自万历以后,世风沦丧,道德崩坏,在这种背景下,为建文死节的忠臣的道德价值就凸显出来了,通过推恩建文忠臣的后代,可以“大慰忠灵,以培圣代纲常”(朱鹭238),万历登基伊始,就下诏褒奖建文死难“忠臣义士”,建祠祭祀。

    《澹园集》

    屠方叔、许有毂、张朝瑞等皆从“挽千万世之颓风”(焦竑128)的视角编纂建文史籍,且多以“忠义”命名,如《表忠录》《忠节录》等。另外,还出现了一些伪作,如托名史仲彬的《致身录》和程济的《从亡随笔》等。

    这些随笔性的史著,以建文从亡之臣的口气,记载建文出亡的事迹,其中既有坊间讹传也有作者自己的编造,名为史书,其实是小说。这时期的通俗小说,也积极相应政治需要,为“靖难”死难之臣正名,重塑人们对“靖难”史的认知谱系。

    如《西湖二集》第十八卷建文臣子黄观死节的故事,第三十一卷写方孝孺门人王徐终冒死搜集方孝孺的文集,《型世言》第一回通过建文忠臣铁铉父女的故事,褒扬“臣死忠,子死孝,妻死夫”的壮烈行为。《型世言》第八回则塑造了程济智士、义士、忠臣的形象。

    另外还有长篇白话小说《续英烈传》,比较真实地反映了“靖难之役”的全过程。作者笔下的建文是个纯仁至孝的君主,他的失败令人惋惜;而朱棣的形象也更为丰满,他既是个雄才大略的君主,又曾是个“阴怀大志”的藩王。

    关于建文的结局,当时有自焚、逊国和不知所终三种说法,但第三种说法似乎更符合明末人的心理予求,《致身录》《从亡随笔》等书虽被史家目为伪书,但“一时士大夫皆信之”,折射出时人希望建文能够善终的美好愿望。

    《致身录》

    然而,这时期的文学和历史有关“靖难”的叙事都是在承认成祖为圣主的前提下进行的,因而难免进退失据,既称颂朱棣的智勇和功业,又肯定建文的“仁孝”;既褒扬殉难诸臣的忠烈,又欣赏姚广孝等人的智谋;既以建文君臣为仁君忠臣,又称燕王起兵为“起义”。这种写法体现了明人对于“靖难”解说的无助,这一尴尬只有到明亡后才破局。

    早在南明时,弘光即追谥建文为“让皇帝”,补谥建文忠臣,夺“靖难”功臣谥或改予恶谥。鼎革后人们更没有了禁忌,因而对“靖难”的认识发生了根本性的变化。

    谈迁的《国榷》不但恢复了建文年号,而且纪事也站在建文的立场上。查继佐的《罪惟录》对史家采取两种标准看待“靖难”与寘鐇、宸濠之叛感到不满。

    更为重要的是,人们关注“靖难”事件,首先是作为明亡的原因来审视的,如顾炎武《日知录》中认为:“自八股行而古学弃,大全出而经说亡,十族诛而臣节变,洪武、永乐之间,亦世道升降之一会矣。”(1390)

    很多人都将“靖难”视为节义之衰的开始,甚至有人认为明末之所以出现众多“狯猾之徒屈膝拜伪”的变节行为,乃是“靖难”杀戮的报应。《三垣笔记》《甲申痛史》等都用因果报应之说,解释明末动乱,说崇祯是永乐的后身,而流寇则是“靖难”诸臣转世报仇者。

    《三垣笔记》

    其次,清初人把“靖难”事件作为一种民族感情的寄托。在清初的三十余年里,士人对新朝始终有拒斥心理,但由于文字狱酷烈,他们只能采用隐晦的方式来表达,“靖难”事件由于其特殊性而再次引人瞩目。

    曹参芳自称撰写《逊国正气纪》是“由今追昔,欷嘘凭吊”,“以为怀二心者愧也”(曹参芳289)。

    明遗民吕熊作于康熙年间的长篇小说《女仙外史》,就意在借“靖难”题材抒兴亡之感,歌颂抗清志士,诛伐“以夏变于夷”的民族败类,突出“褒忠殛叛”的主题。他与查继佐、张履祥、李玉等人,都直指朱棣为“篡”,朱棣已由“明君”变成了“逆藩”、“奸贼”,姚广孝乃“倡逆”,依附朱棣的官员是“卖国求荣”,朱棣夺嫡是对纲常伦理的大破坏。太阴星主下界的唐赛儿负有在“靖难”中扶持纲常的使命。

    作者又借这段历史曲折地表达自己的民族情感,因为在占星学上,天狼星是异族侵略者的象征,所以,天狼星下凡、由北而来的朱棣显然是影射清统治者。

    小说还对建文出亡之事做了更丰富的拓展,以寄托兴复之思,因为南明三个流亡政权曾颠沛于东南、西南等地,这与建文出亡之地的传说大致契合,而当时江南的抗清斗争正如火如荼地进行,由此可见作者之深意。

    由上所述,从明初至清初,史家和稗官对“靖难”的书写,经历了从“革除”到“逊国”再到“篡夺”的演变过程,既是因应形势的变化,也想通过自己的书写来影响朝廷对“靖难”事件的政治定性和史家的历史叙事,在还原历史方面,有时小说发挥了比史书更为重要的作用。

    2、历史人物的正邪之争

    于谦墓

    在对于重大历史事件中的人物进行评判时,小说家常受到乡谊、党派等多重因素的干扰。如于谦在“土木之变”中有再造社稷之功,但因性格刚直而与翰林院侍讲徐有贞、太监曹吉祥和右都督石亨等结怨。天顺元年(1457),徐、石、曹联手发动“夺门之变”,英宗复辟,于谦受诬处死。

    于谦冤死在当时引起了很多人的不满,为应对舆情,有人炮制了小说《正统传》,1把于谦塑造成大奸大恶之人。昭槤《啸亭杂录》卷十说:《正统传》“以于忠肃为元恶大憝……此皆以忠为奸,使人竖发。”(310)

    《正统传》现已佚,但从昭槤的记载看来,这部小说似乎清初尚存。黄人猜测该书“大约系石亨、曹吉祥之党徒所为”,他怒骂道:“书中以于忠肃为元凶大憝,可谓丧心病狂。然明人小说,以私怨背公理,是其积习;惟此书与《承运传》,颠倒是非为尤甚耳。若以张江陵为巨奸,杨武陵为大忠者,固数见不鲜矣。”(《明清小说资料选编》上193)

    这类小说对政敌肆意污化,以实现其政治阴谋。在徐、石、曹集团倒台后,朝野上下要求为于谦平反的呼声很高,成化初复官赐祭,弘治二年(1489)谥肃愍,万历中改谥忠肃。而浙籍文人也纷纷创作文学作品歌颂于谦。如长篇小说《于少保萃忠传》和《萃忠录》。2

    关于《于少保萃忠全传》的创作,可能沈士俨、沈士修、孙高亮、沈国元等八人都有不同程度的参与,他们都是杭州或浙籍人,不但与于谦是同乡,而且有的渊源颇深。据林从吾《序》称:“予族世居吴山下,与忠肃公同里。先府丞公为公姊婿,得公居乡立朝事甚核。”里友孙高亮“其先为公石交,传其事,与予所闻悬合”(《于少保萃忠全传》1-2)。

    《于少保萃忠传》

    所以,《于少保萃忠全传》虽大体遵从史实,描述于谦“勋著天壤,忠塞宇宙”的伟功和忠义,但也多有夸饰和虚构,如于谦破案及神异故事,是从一些神魔小说和公案小说中抄袭和改编过来的。可见,无论是于谦的反对者还是拥趸者,都企图通过“土木之变”中于谦的小说书写,争夺政治话语权和历史定谳权。

    小说对平辽总兵毛文龙的历史评说,也以实录的名义夹带党争和地域的私货。

    崇祯二年(1624)五月,袁崇焕诱杀毛文龙,崇祯虽然觉得很突然,但事已至此,只得下诏褒奖袁崇焕,不久又传旨公开毛文龙的罪行。

    毛文龙祖籍山西,祖上因经商而定居杭州。其舅氏沈光祚进士出身,乃熹宗朝名臣,沈家为杭州望族,在当地很有影响力,毛文龙的部属又以浙兵为主,文龙被杀后,“杭人莫不怜之”(计六奇117)。

    同年十一月十八日,满清大军突然兵临北京城下,史称“己巳之变”,袁崇焕被逮捕,次年八月凌迟处死。

    毛文龙死之初,其党羽、族亲、部属等积极为他鸣冤,四处活动,“广布流言”(孙承泽707),“己巳之变”后,朝野都把这事件与毛文龙之死联系起来,舆论开始逆转,描写“己巳之变”的时事小说《平虏传》卷2第2则中写道:“当时百姓遭此大难,无可怨怼,只怨不合杀毛文龙,一路失守,弄得鞑子犯境。于是廿九日遂风闻传进奴书与袁督师。一时谣言,几如鼎沸。”

    《东江疏揭塘报节抄》

    为毛文龙颂功和鸣冤的主要是浙人,如毛文龙之子毛承斗汇辑的《东江疏揭塘报节抄》、汪汝淳的《毛大将军海上情形》、毛先舒的《毛太保公传》、毛奇龄的《毛总戎墓志铭》等。

    在强大的舆论诱导下,很多人受到蛊惑,程本直《游声记》云:“其私言者私,其公言者亦忘焉其非公也。于是乎为文龙讼冤者有之矣,复官者、请恤者纷纷矣”(《袁崇焕资料集录》118-126)。

    时人认为袁崇焕因个人恩怨而斩杀毛文龙,“比之秦桧之杀岳飞”(张岱90)。阉党攻击阁臣、东林党人钱龙锡是主谋,钱被削职论死,后减等戌边。“于是出间金数十万,飞箝上下,流言小说造作端末,不特烈皇证其先入,朝野传告亦为信然”(黄宗羲552)。

    全祖望在《题东江事迹》中批评道:“凡杭人无不诉毛文龙之冤者,其昧于乡里之私,而所见为伧父,可一哂也。”(《全祖望集汇校集注》1318)李清《袁督师斩毛文龙始末》中亦云:“彼浙人徇其私情,犹有为文龙极口呼冤者,斯真可谓别有肺肠矣!”(《袁崇焕资料集录》35)

    一直到清朝,毛文龙仍是江浙人心目中的抗清英雄,甚至后来满文档案公开,仍有人责怪同为乡人的万斯同为何不在撰写《明史》时为毛文龙说话。

    《辽海丹忠录》插图

    《辽海丹忠录》和《镇海春秋》就是在袁崇焕被逮、舆论偏向毛文龙之际而“造作”的小说,两部小说都称赞毛文龙是集忠、勇、智于一身的一代名将,是海上长城,袁崇焕杀毛文龙是出于私利。材料大致取自《毛大将军海上情形》《东江疏揭塘报节抄》等书(井玉贵301-311)。

    《辽海丹忠录》(《古本小说集成》本)的作者陆人龙是杭州人,早年与毛文龙一样,是屡试不第的秀才,顾克勇还推断陆云龙、陆人龙兄弟与毛文龙之弟毛季龙可能认识,而且陆氏兄弟与毛文龙的部属或许也有瓜葛(顾克勇144)。

    由于这些关系,陆人龙对毛文龙不吝赞美之词,以与毛文龙同乡为荣,如第十八回回末说:“一门大节,俱足上达圣明,感天地,真亦武林盛事也。”明确表示创作小说就是要为毛文龙白冤,“顾铄金之口,能死豪杰于舌端;而如椽之笔,亦能生忠贞于毫下”(《明清小说资料选编》上203)。

    小说开篇就说毛文龙是应时出世的将星,年少即有志功名,博习百家,因屡试不售,便弃文从武,他文韬武略,胸怀倜傥,挥金如土,结交义士。他忠君爱国,体贴军士,爱护百姓,乃当世李广和岳飞。

    《镇海春秋》

    由于《辽海丹忠录》《镇海春秋》中的材料大量摭自毛文龙的疏揭塘报等,而这些材料多虚妄之词,朱梅叔就批评《毛太保公传》说:“然此传本欲为文龙泄愤,而不知已流于小说之无稽也。”(《埋忧集》264)因而影响了小说的历史价值。

    不过,陆人龙毕竟是有家国情怀的底层知识分子,乡曲之情并未完全遮蔽其公允之心,他称赞袁崇焕“是个有胆力的人”,并不为他的悲惨结局而幸灾乐祸,而且肯定熊廷弼有稳定辽东之功。

    《镇海春秋》题为“吴门啸客”撰(《古本小说集成》本),从书中的观点来看,作者应与阉党有一定的关系。

    袁崇焕虽不是东林党人,但与东林党人关系密切,他的座师韩爌是东林党领袖,也得到东林党人孙承宗、钱龙锡的赏识和提拔,与很多东林党人都交谊匪浅,又顶撞过阉党王在晋、高第等,故阉党对他切齿痛恨,必欲除之而后快。毛文龙之能专阃海外,与他“厚结内珰,尊之为父兄”是分不开的(李光涛367一483)。

    《辽海丹忠录》对阉党态度暧昧,甚至赞成宦官监军,对于毛文龙与阉党的亲密关系选择失语。《镇海春秋》则公开贬低东林党人,美化阉党。宁锦大捷本是袁崇焕之功,作者却渲染太监纪用足智多谋和指挥若定,最后归功于魏忠贤的英明领导。

    辽东巡抚王化贞是兵部尚书张鹤鸣荐用的人,而张鹤鸣又是阉党的人,辽东经略熊廷弼为楚党,但后来与东林党关系密切,东林党人左副都御史杨涟弹劾魏忠贤的奏疏,就传言出自熊廷弼之手。

    《辽海丹忠录》

    《镇海春秋》对两人的评价也完全暴露出作者偏袒阉党的立场。当广宁惨败后,小说描写王化贞和熊廷弼同时被捕入京:“那些校尉来到山海,把王巡抚拿下,将欲就道,只见众百姓们遮道痛哭呐喊三声而散,这原来是王巡抚平日做官柔而懦,所以百姓喜欢,不忍他逮去,以致如此。

    这熊经略被拿,那些百姓,就恬不为怪,寂然无声,这却是熊经略日常间做官刚而愎,所以众百姓怪他严甚,被逮之时,就没有一个像待王巡抚的。”其实在历史上,王化贞对辽东败绩负有主要责任。作者不仅颂扬毛文龙,而且将魏忠贤与毛文龙的勾结美化为英雄惺惺相惜。

    约成书于顺、康熙年间的《樵史通俗演义》,作者署名“江左樵子”,历史学家孟森推断:“细绎作者之为人,及其时代,其人盖东林之传派,而与复社臭味甚密,且为吴中人而久宦于明季之京朝者。其时代则入清未久,即作是书,无得罪新朝之意,于客魏阮,则抱肤受之痛者也。”(《樵史通俗演义》361)

    作者的立场倾向于东林党人,且由于成书相对较晚,毛文龙的真面目也大致露出,故小说中的描写较为接近史实。

    作者指责毛文龙“平日好为大言,没甚本事”,以“诳天子,诓钱粮”的方式聚敛钱财,又通过行贿魏阉固宠。赞画王一宁“原是个有胆气的人”,他见文龙猖狂自恣,再三劝谏,毛文龙便上本说他欲私通外国,又关节阉党许显纯,将王一宁锁到京师,问成死罪,枭首西市。毛文龙亲弟云龙见他妄报出海,枭斩四乡辽民,捏称斩级,甚是不乐,好言相劝,触怒文龙,上本说他不遵兄令,藐法造谤,摇惑军心,请旨就地正法。

    《樵史通俗演义》

    毛文龙杀两人之事虽不见于史料,但孟森认为此事必有(《樵史通俗演义》361)。当然,小说中也有不实之处,如称赞文龙“有一件好处”,即拒绝拜魏忠贤为父,“替杭州人争气”,因此不能升任都督。事实是毛文龙曾“拜魏忠贤为父”,官至左都督,持尚方剑(《明史》6717)。

    作者也反对袁崇焕杀毛文龙,认为袁崇焕是罪有应得,“怎怪得京城百姓生啖崇焕的肉”。当涉及某些敏感史实时,作者也有所忌讳。如冯铨先是谄事魏忠贤,助纣为虐,后又降清,官至宏文院大学士兼礼部尚书。其人格之卑劣, 为时人所不齿。但作者说冯铨与崔呈秀不是一路人,“他极恨崔呈秀这班人所为,在阁议事,竟自执己见,每每为了公义,有所救阻。又与呈秀原是同科中的,知道他贪戾不法,必然败坏朝廷,密谋要逐呈秀。”

    崔呈秀晓知后,在魏忠贤面前进谗,将冯铨逐出内阁。还有吴三桂降清的经过,小说写李自成称帝后,吴三桂“起了义师,不久杀到北京来了”。李自成将吴父羁留在京,逼令写书嘱三桂来降,颁伪旨一道,封吴三桂为侯。

    吴三桂得了书,拍案大叫道:“逆贼无礼如此!我吴三桂堂堂丈夫,焉肯降此逆贼,受万世骂名,忠孝不能两全。”叱令把来使绑去杀了,一面修书一封,即著来使送与太爷,以绝其念,随即起兵杀来。这些描写显然失实。

    《樵史通俗演义》

    有关毛文龙其人其事,不同的小说家呈现给读者的面貌差异较大。如“镇江之役”,据史载,陈良策擒佟养真归附毛文龙,努尔哈赤随即派兵镇压,屠戮甚惨,当时即有人非之,熊廷弼认为破坏了自己的战略部署,称为“奇祸”(《明史》6699)。

    但在陆人龙的笔下,毛文龙以少胜多,足夺敌胆,并引叶向高、董思白疏,加以褒扬。又认为镇江失陷是因为“毛游击终是势孤,况又有妒功的人,不肯发兵救援。”作者大肆渲染镇江失陷时,文龙反身冲杀,斩杀追兵,虽败犹荣。

    在《镇海春秋》中,“镇江之役”更富有传奇色彩,毛文龙以五千士兵,杀退二万奴兵。

    而在《樵史演义》中,“镇江之役”又是另一番图景。小说写陈良策、王一宁领兵归顺明朝,毛文龙初时不纳,直到他们破镇江城、缚佟养真来献、竖起毛文龙旗帜、各岛争先来会时,毛文龙才同意接收,但又把战功攘为己有,“铺张其事,申文与巡抚王化贞,化贞上本,就说是镇江奇捷。魏忠贤正想要立边功,兵部尚书张鹤鸣,又是化贞一路的人,就撺掇天启封毛文龙参将,镇守镇江。”

    自此毛文龙“妄自尊大,手下兵将,也都失望”。清兵来攻镇江,部将劝他坚守,但“他先胆丧,遁走朝鲜。东兵把镇江城屠焚一空。”在朝鲜的《李朝实录》中,也有镇江失陷的记载:“贼兵如飙至风过,奄至林畔,文龙脱冠服混兵士仅免……贼乱斫,文龙手下之人皆延颈待戮。”(吴晗3159)

    《朝鲜李朝实录中的中国史料》

    朝鲜备边司评论此役曰:“毛将所为,不思甚矣。贼冲宣川,不过数百骑,曾不能发一支箭,骈首就戮,有同群羊之见猛虎,其无胆勇,据此可想。”(吴晗3164)可见,《樵史演义》中的描写较为可靠,而《辽海丹忠录》《镇海春秋》做了文学虚构。

    综上所述,小说作者由于乡谊、党派等多重因素的干扰,导致他们在对某一历史人物评价时截然相反。或故意抹黑,混淆视听;或偏爱有加,精心粉饰,都带有各自的政治目的,试图通过小说的传播,使其形象深入人心,并影响其历史定位,增加其个体或集团在政治斗争中的砝码。

    3、文臣武将的战功之争

    从有关明代“播州之役”的小说书写,则可窥见在文武官员、政治派别及区域利益的矛盾冲突中,小说创作在其中所扮演的角色。

    万历二十八年(1599),播州杨应龙之乱平,三十一年(1603)即有小说《征播奏捷传》刊出。小说以四川平播总督李化龙的部将总兵刘綎、陈璘为叙事焦点,大肆渲染他们的战功,而贬低贵州巡抚郭子章及其部下在平播战役中的作用,可能是李化龙的部下武将所编创。

    《四库全书总目》卷五四《平播始末》解题云:郭子章晚年退休家居,“闻一二武弁造作平话,左袒化龙,饰张功绩,多乖事实。乃仿纪事本末之例,以诸奏疏稍加诠次,复为此书,以辨其诬。”(485)这里所说的“平话”应是《征播奏捷传》。

    《征播奏捷传》

    但郭子章在《黔中平播始末》中云:“乙卯嘉平,始释绖,闻一二武弁无识,倩坊间措大作平话,类《水浒传》,左袒逆龙。又或倩文士作《平播录》,饰张己功,浮夸没实。予愤然曰:‘充国有言:“兵,国之大事,当为后法。”老臣岂嫌□一时事,以欺明主哉?脱死,谁当复言之?’乃以诸奏疏稍加铨次,效古人作《通鉴纪事本末》,名曰《黔中平播始末》。”(174)

    廖可斌先生认为《四库总目》中“左袒化龙”应是“左袒逆龙”之误(廖可斌114-115),这是十分正确的判断,《征播奏捷传》中确有“左袒”杨应龙的倾向,不过,也不能排除创作小说争功的意图,否则郭子章不会对李化龙的部将“又或倩文士作《平播录》,饰张己功,浮夸没实”的行为表示愤慨,并编撰《黔中平播始末》加以辨正。

    《征播奏捷传》是站在四川官方主要是武将的立场上进行叙事,而《黔中平播始末》则站在贵州官方主要是文官的视角叙事,都分别隐含着作者的政治态度。在“平播之役”前后,蜀黔两地都存在矛盾冲突,文官和武将之间的关系也颇为微妙。

    胡晓真教授通过分析李化龙与郭子章之间的来往信件,读到两人之间的某种紧张关系(胡晓真461)。《平播全书》中收录的李化龙纠参奏本,又多是针对贵州将领的。王虎又经过考证,认为此事与党争有关,李化龙与郭子章可能分属不同的党派(王虎17-28)。

    《平播全书》

    对于杨应龙,川贵两省官员态度截然不同,“蜀抚按主抚而黔主剿”(茅瑞征69)。万历十八(1590)年十一月兵科都给事中张栋在《上酋情罪未确两省意见不同疏》中就揭出其中的原因:

    杨酋所居虽系四川幅员,实为贵州肘腋,四境之内固不可使人跳梁,卧榻之侧亦岂可容人鼾睡,其重均也。贵州抚臣于此酋何怨?而种种列其罪恶,似决不可宥者,不过为地方忧耳,为国家计耳。四川抚按于此酋何恩?而鳃鳃辩其里枉,似决不可剿者,亦不过为地方忧耳,为国家计耳(《万历疏钞》614-615)。

    杨应龙与蜀中诸将多有交往,尤与川中名将刘显、刘綎父子交谊深厚,刘氏父子对应龙多所袒护,故在两省会勘时,杨应龙愿意赴蜀而不肯去黔。

    小说第十七、十八回写设太平宴,刘綎上坐,应龙前坐,其余将官列坐两旁,“共饮之间,意气投洽”,两人效桃园结义,结为异性兄弟。在讨伐杨应龙时,李化龙“以綎与应龙有旧,谕无通贼,綎械其人以自明”(《明史》5985);贵州官员也认为四川官员有“私昵应龙之心”(《明史》8045)。

    《明史》

    征播之初,刘綎逗留不进,言官交章弹劾,刘綎辞任,李化龙慰留之,上疏力荐,谓非刘綎不可,命总理川内四路大军(《明史》6393-6394)。刘綎为表感谢,向化龙行贿,此事为御史所侦知,贵州官吏和科道言官风闻,纷纷上疏要求罢免刘綎,化龙则坚持要綎留任,在奏疏中赞刘綎是“有用之才,又有效用之志。”(李化龙86)

    最终打动万历皇帝。但对于这些,小说作者避而不谈,反而大肆渲染蜀中将领的英勇,贬低贵州官员,如三十五回、三十六回写杨朝栋陷綦江时,夸大贵州军士的败绩,指责贵州军队“训练未精,纪律混乱”,并丑化贵州巡抚江东之。

    其实历史上黔军是因中计而遭败,人数只有三千人而不是小说中说的一万人,且表现尚可,总兵杨国柱被俘骂贼不屈而死。郭子章在《黔中平播始末》中也极力解释回护(郭子章188)。

    在历史上,杨应龙的反叛与蜀中官员的处置失当大有关系。王继光被罢免后,重庆知府王士琦主持“松坎会勘”,“应龙果而缚道旁,泣请死罪”,缚献黄元等十二人抵罪,献罚金四万,次子可栋作为人质羁押府中(《明史》8046-8047)。

    但不久杨可栋因遭狱吏挫辱突然死亡,杨应龙痛心疾首,想要急速领取遗体,但重庆方面以检查上报未完为由不肯移交,朝廷又檄文催杨应龙交完赎金,导致杨应龙与朝廷彻底决裂(茅瑞征75)。但小说却隐瞒、篡改了这一重要史实,虚构了应龙几次派人探视,中途被乡官劫掠、可栋使金行贿等情节。

    《万历三大征考》

    联系到当时四川总兵李应祥曾托请张凤翼撰写《平播记》传奇表功,也从另一侧面证明当时确存在争功的情况。播州之乱平息后,万历原拟给重要将领封爵拜侯,但遭到朝中大臣反对,双方僵持不下,以致平播五六年后朝廷仍未颁布序功疏。胡晓真猜测序功拖延可能是导致平播小说涌现的重要原因(胡晓真469)。

    总之,关于“平播之役”事件的小说书写,文官武将、党派之争和地域意识都渗透于其肌理之中,在看似客观的描写中,隐藏着强烈的政治诉求,甚至连瞿九思《万历武功录》这样记载平播等战争的史书都“颇类稗官小说,摭拾多不雅驯”(茅瑞征13)。

    4、小说创作引发政治血案

    明代有些小说的创作已不是简单的政治行为,而是暗藏杀机,并最终引发严重的政治后果,是明代文字狱的另一种表现形式。在与东林党人的政治角斗中,阉党特别善于借用或编撰小说陷害政敌,大兴冤狱,滥开杀戒。

    他们模仿小说的形式罗织罪名。阉党群小炮制各种花名册呈献魏忠贤,作为整肃异己的参照,其中就有王绍徽模仿《水浒传》编辑的《东林点将录》,将东林党人及其同情者与梁山一百零八将一一对应,其后又有《石偈录》等。魏忠贤矫旨刊布,并印于邸报,东林党因而遭受毁灭性的打击。

    当时《水浒传》被统治者认为是“诲盗”之作,是引发各地叛乱的祸源,万历二十年(1592)平定拜之乱后,朝廷的布告中就形容拜“仿佛禄山之强,不减宋江之勇”(沈德符1997)。崇祯十五年(1642)六月降旨禁毁《水浒传》。可见阉党巧于利用,借《水浒传》实现其险恶之用心。

    《三朝野记》

    阉党还善于借用小说构陷政敌。如辽东经略熊廷弼的死亡,就与《辽东传》的成书与刊刻有关。熊廷弼被杀不仅是因他丢掉了辽东,更重要的原因是他与东林党人的关系。

    明人李逊之《三朝野记》卷三记载:“辽难之发,涿州父方任□□(辽东)布政,鼠窜南奔。书肆中有刻小说者,内列冯布政奔逃一回,涿州耻之,先令卓迈上廷弼宜急斩疏,遂于讲筵袖出此传,奏请正法,(时熊在狱中,文出,揭五投贿杨、左事,内亦忌之矣。)拟谕以进。王体乾曰:‘此明系小冯欲杀熊家,与皇爷何预?’请御笔增入‘卿等面奏,出诸袖中’云云。”(83-84)

    李清《三垣笔记》附识“崇祯”载:“至《辽东传》一书,为丁辅绍轼等进呈以杀廷弼者。予曾见此传,最俚浅不根。而指为廷弼撰授,尤诬。赴市时,挺立不跪。下刃仅及颈半,行刑者即以刀逆割之,惨哉!”(155)

    冯铨之父冯盛明时任蓟辽兵备道,后金陷辽阳时逃归,被熊廷弼逮捕下狱,冯铨亦被劾归原籍。冯铨求助于魏忠贤,官复原职,冯盛明释归。

    《辽东传》托名为熊廷弼,或为同情东林党的下层文人所著,书中描绘了冯盛明在战场上仓皇逃窜的丑态,语言“俚浅不根”,冯铨当知非熊廷弼所作,但他趁机公报私仇。周宗建当时就一针见血地戳穿了魏忠贤的阴谋,痛斥他“兴大狱”是“别借廷弼,欲一陷阱之”(《明史》6358),即借机将东林党人一网打尽。

    《东林点将录》

    阉党还通过“刊书惑众,借题曲杀”(《明史》6706),即亲自编撰小说,借题发挥,杀害政敌。如崇祯年间宰辅温体仁是浙党领袖,与东林为敌。他当政时,常策划排挤、打击东林党人,数次欲启用遭废斥的阉党。东林党人郑鄤负盛名,曾因疏攻客魏而罢官,后复职。温体仁、杨嗣昌、张至发欲借鄤以倾文震孟、黄道周,乃先后劾鄤杖母、惑父披剃出家,下鄤于刑部狱。

    温党陆完学又串通郑鄤同乡、内阁中书许曦,许曦收买与郑家有矛盾的杨琛、郑郏等作伪证,并加入奸媳奸妹等不伦事,撰成秽恶小说《放郑小史》《大英雄传》,嵌入姓名,在市井广为流传。而崇祯也欲借此案压制清流,钳制言论,遂下旨将郑鄤磔死。

    郑鄤死后,阉党又撰小说《扶伦信史》《烈女传》演说鄤杖母、奸媳事,极力污化郑鄤。朝廷处死大臣竟以小说中的虚构故事作为事实依据,这在明代以前绝无仅有。当然,在魏阉倒台后,反魏派小说家也在作品中大量虚构故事丑化客魏,以加强对阉党的舆论讨伐。

    5、余 论

    明代小说以丰富的政治意涵,突破了以往文学作为教化、娱乐工具的传统,形成了中国小说史上独特的文学景观。

    《茶香室丛钞》

    首先,唐宋时期虽然不乏利用小说攻击政敌的案例,但常曲笔为之,一般比较隐蔽,而明清小说则更为直接和大胆,俞樾在《茶香室丛钞》中感叹道:“实纪当时之事,并姓氏官位,亦大书之,明人之无忌惮如此!”(《明清小说资料选编》上199)

    作者通过对政治大事件的阐释和再现,建构政治话语,小说的文体、修辞、文风等都无不受到影响,特别是时事小说,编撰和出版都非常迅捷,内容“动关政务,半系章疏”,保留了大量奏章、诏书、檄文等,并以“编年”的形式进行叙事,作者在行文中穿插大量的政论式评论。

    反映明代重大历史事件的小说,无论是有意的虚构和杜撰,还是秉持补史的严肃态度而写作,其目的都是为了影响政治的运作和正史的编撰,在小说文本的肌理和结构、叙事视角、修辞手法中流溢着浓郁的政治色彩。

    其次,唐代小说的作者一般是文人士夫,文言小说传播的范围也有限,而明代小说的作者和读者层次下移,通俗小说广为流播,产生了巨大影响,许多普通民众得以通过小说的创作和阅读参与到政治生活中。

    大多数通俗小说的作者都是底层文人,但他们饱受儒家正统思想的浸淫,因而具有较强的参政议政意识,但由于不在其位,无法谋其政,只能通过小说创作这种特殊的方式来展现自己的政治才能,凸显出文学的功利性、目的性、政治性,史蒂文·卢克斯曾归纳说:“所有关于权力讨论的根本的共同核心或者存在于其背后的基本想法是A通过某些方式影响B。”(史蒂文·卢克斯19)这些社会地位不高的小说作者就是企图通过这种形式变现文本权力。

    《道德相对主义》

    最后,围绕着明代重大历史事件和历史人物进行的小说创作,表现出文学与历史、政治三者之间的丰富和复杂关系。这类小说的政治化写作,既是中国古已有之的文学传统之赓续,也与西方新历史主义不谋而合。

    古代文学早有“经夫妇,成孝敬,厚人伦,美教化,移风俗”的功能,清代学者章学诚则提出“六经皆史”之说,胡适、梁启超等也先后发表过诸子、诗文、小说等一切古书皆史的观点,后来陈寅恪研治史学,以“诗史互证”。

    上世纪七八十年代崛起于西方的新历史主义学派,将文学文本作为政治行为和历史事件来把握,文学作品和文学史被视为论证意识形态、社会心理、权力斗争、民族传统和文化差异的场所。

    他们认为历史从来都不仅仅是“谁的历史”,而总是“为谁的历史”,换言之,就是为某个特殊的社会群体而撰写和阅读的历史。在很多情况下,历史记载可能并不是重现过去的真实状况,而只是一种意识形态的灌输,含有明确的政治目的。

    同样,文学叙事者在处理诸多历史材料时,他所关心的可能往往不是事件的真伪,而是其是否符合自己的写作目的。从总体上来看,“新历史主义把现实加以历史化,把过去加以现实化。过去塑造现在,而现在也重释过去。在文化批评活动中,在文化诗学与文化政治之间,构造出一个持续不断的‘文本与历史’的对话。”(王岳川187)

    历史与文学互相依存、互相塑造,产生了“文本的历史性”与“历史的文本性”。海登·怀特认为历史叙述和文学叙述并没有本质的区别,“书写历史只不过是书写小说的另一种方式而已”(张隆溪66)。

    《小说的艺术 :亨利·詹姆斯文论选》

    亨利·詹姆斯指出“正如图画之为现实,小说就是历史”。(享利·詹姆斯6)他们的观点虽然有偏执之嫌,但在某种程度上道出了文学与历史之间存在无法剥离的内在关联性。

    明代这些政治倾向鲜明的小说,内容多采自野史笔记,反之又在一定程度上影响了正史的写作。

    比如纪昀主持纂修《四库全书》,总体态度倾向于否定建文出亡的真实性,但在私人场合却表示“理或有之”。

    《明史》在编撰建文帝部分时,采用逊国之说;《王艮传》采用的是黄宗羲认为不实的“自鸩”说;记平安之死,竟不用潘柽章认为可信的《实录》,偏用《逊国臣记》及其他野记。甚至姚广孝传,也宁为钱谦益所说的“吴儿委巷妄语”所误。

    黄宗羲《弘光实录钞》中所录补谥名单,不但有史彬、程济之名,而且有官职无考的河西佣、补锅匠冯翁、王公、东湖、乐清、耶溪三樵夫等。钱谦益、潘柽章尽管以史彬、程济等人故事为妄,但仍相信“出亡”之说,不但将建文“不焚”,且将溥洽之“薙染”,以至“耄逊遐荒”、“头陀乞食”等,均作为“事实”言说。

    所以赵园在《明清之际作为话题的“建文事件”》一文中指出:“有关建文君臣的故事制作,是‘革除’历史的后史。民间与士夫对此事件的不断演绎、重述,是持续的意义赋予过程。在这类场合,齐东野语,士夫所鄙的‘委巷不经之说’,亦自有其严肃性。野史、民间创作,从来被士、民作为言说禁忌性的话题的方式,是他们处禁制下的叙事策略——与其说意在以此存‘史’,倒不如说更在以此存‘人心’。”(296)

    《赵园自选集》

    其结果是,有时历史比小说更像小说,小说会比历史更像历史。另外,《樵史通俗演义》等小说中的一些材料都为正史所采用。总之,明代重大历史事件题材小说所呈现的政治、历史与小说三者之间的关系,远比西方新历史主义的论述更为丰富、复杂和精彩。

    注释:

    1参见纪德君:“明清小说创作中的浊流”,《中国典籍与文化》4( 2003) : 72—77,该文认为《正统传》出现在《于少保萃忠全传》之后;董国炎认为当在《于少保萃忠全传》之后或同时,参见董国炎:《明清小说思潮》(太原:山西人民出版社,2004年),第395页;陈汝衡则认为《正统传》成书时间在《于少保萃忠全传》之前,参见陈汝衡:《说苑珍闻》(上海古籍出版社,1981 年),第70页; 苗怀明具体落实为天顺元年至成化二年之间(1457—1466 年),他还猜测是石、曹之党所为。参见苗怀明:“几部描写于谦事迹的古代通俗小说考论”,《明清小说研究》2( 2000):191—206。笔者认为《正统传》不太可能在石、曹处死、于谦平反之后完成。

    ② 苗怀明《几部描写于谦事迹的通俗小说考论》认为还 有另一种描写于谦事迹的小说《萃忠录》,与《于少保萃忠 全传》并非一书,作者为郎瑛,大约在嘉靖年间成书。

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    [Zhang,Dai.Latter Volume of Book in Stone Cabinet.Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1959.]

    张隆溪:“记忆、历史、文学”,《外国文学》 1( 2008): 65—69。

    [Zhang,Longxi.“Memory, History, and Literature.” Foreign Literature 1(2008): 65-69.]

    张廷玉:《明史》。北京:中华书局, 1974年。

    [Zhang,Tingyu. History of the Ming Dynasty. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1974.]

    章学诚:《文史通义校注》上。北京:中华书局,1985年。

    [Zhang,Xuecheng. Annotated General Meaning of History and Literature.Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company,1985.]

    张朝瑞:《忠节录》卷之六,《四库全书存目丛书·史 97· 传记类》。济南:齐鲁书社,1996年。

    [Zhang,Zhaorui.Record of Loyal Heroes.Vol.6.Collection of Works Mentioned in the Catalogue but Not Included inthe Complete Collection of the Four Treasures. Vol. 97. Jinan: Qilu Press,1996.]

    朱国桢:《皇明史概·大政记》第七卷,《续修四库全书》 第428—431 册。上海: 上海古籍出版社,1995年。

    [Zhu,Guozhen.Imperial History of the Ming Dynasty: Fundamental Policies.Vol.7.The Continuation of the Complete Collection of the Four Treasures. Vol. 428431. Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House,1995.]

    朱鹭:《建文书法拟·述圣德》,《四库全书存目丛书·史 53·杂史类》。济南:齐鲁书社,1996年。

    [Zhu,Lu.Imitated Calligraphy of Emperor Jianwen: Discourse on the Holly Virtue. Collection of Works Mentioned in the Catalogue but Not Included in the Complete Collection of the Four Treasures. Vol. 53. Jinan: Qilu Press,1996.]

    朱梅叔:《埋忧集》。长沙: 岳麓书社, 1985。[Zhu,Meishu. Collection of Burying Worries. Changsha: Yuelu Press,1985.]

    朱一玄:《明清小说资料选编》 (上) 。天津:南开大学出版社,2006年。

    [Zhu,Yixuan.Selected Materials on the Novels during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.Vol.1.Tianjin: Nankai University Press,2006.]

    朱铸禹:《全祖望集汇校集注》。上海: 上海古籍出版社, 2000 年。

    [Zhu,Zhuyu.Annotated Collection of Quan Zuwang's Works. Shanghai: Shanghai Chinese Classics Publishing House, 2000.]

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  • 谭德塞:新冠病毒仍是头号公敌 太多国家正朝着错误的方向前进

    全球累计新冠确诊病例超过1300万例之际,当地时间7月13日,世界卫生组织总干事谭德塞在日内瓦举行的在线记者会上表示,太多的国家正朝着错误的方向前进,新冠病毒仍是头号公敌。

    The coronavirus pandemic will get "worse and worse" if governments fail to take more decisive action, the World Health Organization (WHO) has warned.

    世界卫生组织警告说,如果各国政府不能采取更果断的行动,新冠肺炎疫情将会“越来越糟”。

    Director general Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said "too many countries [were] headed in the wrong direction".

    世界卫生组织总干事谭德塞说,“太多国家正朝着错误的方向前进。”

    Cases were rising where proven measures were not adopted or followed, he added.

    他补充说,在没有采取或遵循已证实有效措施的地方,病例正在增加。

    The Americas are the current epicentre of the pandemic. The US has seen a rise in cases amid tensions between health experts and President Donald Trump.

    美洲是目前疫情的“震中”。目前卫生专家和美国总统唐纳德·特朗普之间关系紧张之际,美国的新冠肺炎确诊病例一直在增加。

    The US, the worst affected country, has over 3.3 million confirmed cases and more than 135,000 deaths, according to Johns Hopkins University.

    根据约翰斯·霍普金斯大学的数据,美国是疫情最严重的国家,确诊病例超过330万例,死亡人数超过13.5万。

    世界卫生组织怎么说?

    At a briefing in Geneva on Monday, Dr Tedros said "mixed messages from leaders" were undermining public trust in attempts to bring the pandemic under control.

    本周一(7月13日)在日内瓦举行的一次新闻发布会上,谭德塞说“领导人们发出的混杂信息”正在破坏公众对控制疫情努力的信任。

    "The virus remains public enemy number one, but the actions of many governments and people do not reflect this," he said.

    他说:“病毒仍然是头号公敌,但许多政府和民众的行动没有反映出这一点。”

    Dr Tedros said measures such as social distancing, hand washing, and wearing masks in appropriate situations needed to be taken seriously, warning that there would be "no return to the old normal for the foreseeable future".

    谭德塞说,需要认真对待社交隔离、洗手和在适当情况下戴口罩等措施,并警告说,“在可预见的未来,世界不会回到原来的正常状态”。

    "If the basics aren't followed, there is only one way this pandemic is going to go," Dr Tedros said, adding: "It's going to get worse and worse and worse."

    他说:“如果不遵循基本防疫规则,这场疫情将只会朝着一个方向发展,那就是变得越来越糟。”

    Dr Mike Ryan, the WHO's emergencies director, said the easing of some lockdown measures in the Americas and the opening up of some areas had led to "intense transmission".

    世卫组织紧急事务主任迈克瑞安博士表示,美洲某些封锁措施的放松和一些地区的开放导致了“密集传播”。

    Latin America has confirmed more than 145,000 coronavirus-related deaths, though the number is believed to be higher because of insufficient testing.

    拉丁美洲新冠肺炎死亡病例已超过14.5万例,然而人们认为由于检测不足,这个数字其实更高。

    Half of the deaths were in Brazil, where President Jair Bolsonaro has opposed strict measures to curb the spread of the virus.

    其中半数死亡病例发生在巴西,该国总统雅伊尔·博索纳罗反对采取严厉措施遏制病毒传播。

    Dr Ryan said closing down large regions would have huge economic consequences, but that local lockdowns in specific places might be necessary to mitigate the spread of the virus.

    瑞安博士表示,在大范围地区实施封锁措施会给经济带来很大影响,但为了减缓病毒的传播,可能必须对某些地方实行局部封锁。

    He urged governments to implement clear and "strong" strategies, adding: "Citizens have to understand, and it has to be easy for them to comply."

    他敦促各国政府实施明确而“有力”的策略,并补充道:“公民必须理解,而且这些措施必须容易遵守。”

    疫苗进展如何?免疫力可以长期预防感染吗?

    "We need to learn to live with this virus," Dr Ryan said, warning that expectations that the virus could be eradicated, or that an effective vaccine could be ready, within months were "unrealistic".

    瑞安博士说:“我们需要学会与新冠病毒共存。”他警告说,期望在几个月内消灭病毒,或者研制出一种有效的疫苗是“不现实的”。

    He said it was not yet known whether recovering from the coronavirus would lead to immunity, or, if it did, how long that immunity would last.

    他说,目前还不知道新冠肺炎痊愈后是否会产生免疫力,或者,如果会,免疫力会持续多久。

    A separate study released on Monday by scientists at King's College London suggested that immunity to the virus may be short-lived.

    伦敦国王学院的科学家本周一(7月13日)发布的另一项研究表明,对该病毒的免疫力可能是暂时的。

    Scientists at the college studied 96 people to understand how the body naturally fights off the virus by making antibodies, and how long these last in the weeks and months after recovery.

    该学院的科学家研究了96名受试者,以了解人体如何通过产生抗体来自然对抗病毒,以及在痊愈后的几周或几个月里,抗体能维持多久。

    However, while almost all of those who participated had detectable antibodies that could neutralise and stop coronavirus, levels began to wane over the three months of the study.

    然而,尽管几乎所有受试者都有可检测到的能够中和和阻止新冠病毒的抗体,但在三个月的研究中,抗体水平开始下降。

    At the WHO briefing, health experts also said there was evidence to suggest that children under the age of 10 were only very mildly affected by Covid-19, while those over 10 seemed to suffer similar mild symptoms to young adults.

    在世卫组织的发布会上,卫生专家还说,有证据表明,10岁以下的儿童只受到非常轻微的新冠病毒感染,而10岁以上的儿童似乎与年轻人有类似的轻度症状。

    To what extent children can transmit the virus, while it appears to be low, remains unknown.

    尽管传播能力很低,但儿童能在多大程度上传播这种病毒仍不清楚。

    【全球疫情最新数据】

    据美国约翰斯·霍普金斯大学疫情实时监测系统显示,截至美东时间7月13日下午6时34分,全球累计新冠病毒感染病例13048249例,累计死亡病例571685例。

    美国是全球疫情最严重的国家,累计感染病例3353348例,累计死亡病例135524例。巴西累计感染病例1884967例,累计死亡病例72833例。印度累计感染病例878254例,俄罗斯累计感染病例732547例。

    累计感染病例超过25万例的国家还有秘鲁、智利、墨西哥、英国、南非、伊朗、西班牙和巴基斯坦。累计死亡病例超过3万例的国家还有英国、墨西哥、意大利和法国。

    英文来源:BBC

    翻译&编辑:yaning

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  • 让英语流利的三种方式 3 Ways to Become MORE FLUENT in English

    15:52

    Well hello! I'm Emma from mmmEnglish!

    I'm super excited to share this video with you today.

    大家好,我是Emma,欢迎来到Emma的美味英语!

    今天和大家分享这个视频我超级激动的呢。

    I want to challenge your thinking about fluency.

    What does it mean to be fluent in English?

    我想挑战一下大家对于流畅度的看法。

    英语说得很流利意味着什么呢?

    And are you actually more fluent than you think? . . . . . .

    你真的比你想象的更加流畅吗?

    Before we get started I just want to thank the sponsor of today's lesson, Skillshare.

    Now I mentioned Skillshare a few weeks ago, in this lesson here.

    在我们开始之前,我想首先感谢本次课程的赞助商,Skillshare。

    我几周之前就提到过Skillshare,就在这节课程中。

    They're an online learning platform with lots of free classes but through their Premium Membership, you can access thousands of amazing classes taught by expert teachers across so many different areas.

    It's mind-blowing really, just how many different courses there are.

    它是一个在线学习平台,有很多免费的课程,但是如果你成为他们的高级会员的话,成千上万超级赞的课程就可以任君挑选,这些课程都是由各个领域的专家老师教授的。

    非常令人大开眼界,各种各样的课程真的是五花八门。

    I've taken three classes already.

    I took one in productivity because I need as much help as I can get in that area.

    我已经参加了三门课程了。

    我参加了一门创造力的课程,因为我需要在那个领域非常需要帮助。

    But I'm completely hooked on baking.

    I've never baked my own bread before but I've taken two classes about bread-making on Skillshare and I'm getting pretty good at it now.

    但是我着实爱上了烘焙。

    我从来没有自己烘焙过面包,但是我已经参加了Skillshare上面两节面包烘焙的课程,我现在已经非常擅长做面包了。

    I learned so much about the baking process and it's actually easier than you think.

    Now, taking a course relating to your interest in English is an awesome way to build your fluency around topics that you love and Skillshare is the perfect place to do that.

    我学到了很多烘焙过程的知识,真的比你想象中更加简单。

    好的,上一节和你的兴趣相关的用英语教授的课程是提升你喜欢的话题的流畅度的超赞的方式,而Skillshare就是一个完美的平台。

    It's super affordable, a premium membership will cost you as little as ten dollars a month on their annual plan.

    But Skillshare have given us a special deal today.

    而且真的超级便宜,高级会员如果是年费的话,每月才花十刀。

    但是Skillshare今天给了我们一个折扣。

    The first five hundred mmmEnglish viewers who sign up with a credit card using the link in the description will get two whole months of premium access to all their courses.

    It's unlimited!

    You can take as many classes as you want!

    前五百名美味英语的观众通过下方的链接用信用卡购买的话可以获得两个月的会员,可以看到所有的课程。没有限制的!

    你想上多少课就可以上多少!

    We're so grateful to Skillshare for offering this deal and giving you yet another way to practise your English skills.

    So quickly! Get down there and grab that link before someone else does!

    非常感谢Skillshare提供给我们这个优惠,也提供给大家另一种练习英语技能的方式。

    超快的!在其他人行动起来之前点击下方获取链接吧!

    All right. Back to the lesson.

    Today I've got three ways to increase your English fluency, but first and this is a very important question.

    好的。回到我们的课程。

    今天我准备了三种方式提成大家的英文流畅度,但是首先有一个非常重要的问题。

    What does fluency mean to you?

    Now it's tricky because if I asked five of you, I'm sure I'd hear five completely different answers.

    流利对你而言意味着什么?

    这个问题并不简单, 如果我问你们其中五个人的话,我敢肯定肯定会听到五个完全不同的回答。

    What does it mean to be fluent in English? What do you think?

    英语流利是什么意思呢?你觉得呢?

    I want you to write me a comment below.

    Tell me your opinion about this question.

    For some people, fluency is being able to have a normal conversation with a native speaker.

    我想让大家写在下方的评论处。告诉我你们对于这个问题的想法。

    对于有些人来说,流利就是能够和母语者进行正常交谈。

    Small talk, general topics like work, where you're from, your family - that kind of thing.

    But for others, fluency relates to tests and exams.

    随意的聊天,比如说像工作、你来自哪里、你的家庭这种类似的一般话题。

    但是对于其他人而言,流畅是和考试挂钩的。

    A certain level that you need to achieve before you can enter a university or apply for a visa. And that's okay too!

    在你进入大学或者是申请签证之前需要达到的某一个特定水平。那也没问题!

    But it's really important that you answer this question.

    When you say "I want to be fluent in English" what do you actually want to be able to do?

    但是重要的是你要去回答这个问题。

    当你说“我想让自己的英语变得很流畅”的时候,你是想拥有什么能力呢?

    Really think about your answer.

    I'm pushing you to do this.

    要认真考虑一下你的答案。

    我在敦促大家做这件事情。

    I want you to join in on this discussion, be part of the conversation today here my friend.

    Don't just watch, I want you to participate.

    我的朋友们,我很想让大家加入这个讨论之中,成为今天这个对话的一部分。

    不要只在一边默默地看,我想让大家进行练习。

    . . . . . . So for me, fluency is a mix of ability: reading, writing, listening, speaking skills and confidence.

    那对于我而言呢,流畅是一系列的能力:阅读、写作、听力、口语技巧和自信。

    有信心有英语进行对话。

    Confidence to stay in an English conversation.

    To me, fluency doesn't mean that you're an advanced English user.

    对我而言,流畅并不意味着你是高级英语使用者。

    当然可以是这样的,但是并不一定是那个意思。

    It could but it doesn't necessarily mean that. In my opinion, someone who's fluent in English can maintain a conversation and feel reasonably relaxed while they're doing it.

    在我看来,英语流畅的人可以与人对话,而且在对话的时候感觉非常地放松。他们的语气和速度都很舒适。

    Their tone and their pace is comfortable.

    They don't hesitate too often.

    他们不会经常犹豫。

    他们可以用言语,也可以用面部表情来传达他们的情感。

    They should be able to speak words and also express their feelings through their facial expression.

    And importantly, they should be able to talk themselves around their mistakes, correct themselves if they need to.

    重要的是,他们应该可以谈论自己的错误,如果需要的话会进行纠正。

    一个人的英语越流利,他们就会感到越放松,对吧?

    The more confident that someone is speaking English, the more relaxed they are, right?

    They're comfortable in the language even if it's not a hundred per cent perfect.

    他们对这门语言感到非常舒适,即使并不是百分之百的完美。

    所以按照我对流利的定义,中等水平的学生可以英语很流利,因为流利是拥有那些你需要进行自然有效交流的技巧,而非一定是完美的程度。

    So with my definition of fluency, someone who is an intermediate level student, could be fluent in English because fluency is about having the skills that you need to communicate comfortably and effectively but not perfectly.

    So I wonder if our ideas of fluency are slightly different.

    我在想你对于流利的想法是不是有点不同。

    你可能和我的观点背道而驰,但是没关系的,只要你知道英语流利度对于你而言意味着什么就可以。

    You might completely disagree with me and that's okay as long as you know what English fluency means to you.

    Okay we've all agreed that your own definition of fluency is completely acceptable here.

    好的,我们都同意你对于流利的定义是完全可以接受的。

    既然你已经了解了定义,是时候让我们来谈论一下提升流利度的一些方式了吧。

    And now that you know that definition, it's time for us to talk about some ways that you can increase your fluency.

    Firstly, I want you to worry less about accuracy.

    首先,希望你不要太担心正确性。

    对于你们其中的某些人而言,这可能并不是什么新鲜事。

    Now for some of you, this might not be such a new idea.

    Maybe you don't worry too much about your mistakes and that's perfect.

    你可能对于自己的错误并不那么担心,那就太棒了。

    但是要继续听下去哦,因为我这节课的后面还有其他的一些策略。

    But stay with me because I've got some other strategies coming up later in the lesson.

    But for most of you, this idea might seem a little crazy especially if you've studied English at school or at a university.

    但是对于你们中的大多数人而言,这个想法可能有点点疯狂,尤其是如果你在学校或者是大学里面学习过英语的话。

    我们所接受的教育就是要说对,如果不对的话,就是错的。

    Everything that we are taught there is about getting it right and if it's not right, it's wrong. You have to prove your ability by passing an exam.

    你必须提升自己的能力通过考试。好的,生活并不是一场考试,所以我希望大家在思考流畅度的时候,忘记这些东西。

    Well, life is nothing like an exam so I want you to forget all of that when you're thinking about fluency.

    As your teacher, helping you to become more confident as an English speaker, you need to change the way that you think about accuracy when you're speaking in English.

    作为你的老师,帮助你成为更加自信的英语学习者,你需要改变你说英语的时候对于正确度的看法。

    我现在谈论的不是英语写作,而是英语口语。

    Now I'm not talking about writing in English here, I'm talking about speaking.

    You know that there are many different ways to say the same thing, right?

    你知道可以有很多不同的方式来说同一种事情,对吧?

    如果你说话的时候犯了错误的话,你只需要学习如何回到这个话题,然后改掉这个错误就行啦。

    And if you make a mistake when you're speaking, you just need to learn how to loop yourself around in that conversation and fix it.

    You don't need to feel worried or ashamed, it happens to me, to native speakers all the time too.

    你不需要担心或者是感到很羞耻,我也会有这种情况的,所有的母语者也都会犯错误。你需要做的就是充满信心,相信自己能够改掉你犯的那些错误。

    All you need to do is feel confident that you can fix the mistakes that you make.

    If you're too focused on the mistakes that you're making and you're constantly questioning yourself in your head during your conversation, this is going to hold you back because if you're too afraid or you're too worried to even start speaking, how are you supposed to get any practice, right?

    如果你太关注你犯的错误的话,你就会在对话的时候在脑海中一直问自己,而这会对你造成阻碍,因为如果你太害怕或者是太担心以至于不敢开始说话的话,你怎么能进行练习呢,是吧?

    所以试着少关注你犯的那些错误,将注意力放在清晰地传达信息上。

    So try to focus less on the mistakes that you're making and focus more on communicating your message clearly. This is going to help you to relax and focus on the positives of your conversation.

    这能够帮助你放松,并且关注对话中的积极方面。

    是的,我现在在谈论的就是思维定式。

    Yes I am talking about your mindset here. I'm talking about changing the way that you think about yourself.

    我说的是改变你认识自己的方式。

    当然了,说得好总比做得好简单,我知道,但是我想让大家改变对于正确性的观念模式是因为你需要开始让自己接触真实情境中的英语,对吗?

    Now that is easier to say than it is to do, I know but the reason why I want you to shift your mindset on accuracy is because you need to start exposing yourself to English in real situations, right?

    So that you can get comfortable being flexible with the language.

    这样你才能对这门语言感到更加地轻松自如。

    而母语者们一直都是这么做的,对吗?

    It's what native speakers do all the time, right?

    We make up words to express our ideas we end and we twist the tenses a little if we make a mistake but it doesn't really affect the meaning of our sentence.

    我们用词汇来表达我们的想法,如果我们犯错了的话,就回去进行一下修改,但那并不影响我们句子的意思。

    我们可能并不想费事去修改,谁会在意呢,尤其是你在和朋友或者是家人对话的话,所以不要太被正确性所桎梏。

    Well we might not bother to fix it, who cares when you're speaking to, you know, friends and family in particular so don't get too caught up on accuracy.

    Now the next thing I want you to think about is focus on the English that you need to use.

    我想和大家讨论的另一件事情就是关注你需要使用的英语。关于这个问题,有两种不同的思考方式。

    Now there's two different ways to think about this.

    The first way is to think really broadly about English as a language.

    首先是非常宽泛地将英语看作是一门语言。

    英语或者是其他任何一种语言的现实就是它们其中包含着成千上万的单词,只有一部分在日常的对话中会使用地比较频繁,我说的是英语母语者,不是英语学习者。

    The reality of English or any language is that there are thousands and thousands of words yet, only a percentage of those are used frequently in daily conversation and I'm talking about native English speakers here, not English learners.

    An average native English speaker actively uses around ten to twelve per cent of English words.

    一般的英语母语者只会使用大概百分之十到十二的英文单词。

    那是他们的积极词汇,当他们写作和说话的时候就会用这些单词表达自我。

    That's their active vocabulary, words that they use to express themselves when they write and they speak. Now this is the full vocabulary that they use out in the world but satisfies their need to communicate in every part of their life.

    这就是他们使用的全部单词,但是却能够满足他们日常交流的所有需求。

    这些普通的英语母语者大概有百分之二十三到二十四的单词是消极词汇,也就说这些单词他们在阅读和听力的时候能够理解,但是自己却不怎么用。

    Now this same average native speaker keeps about twenty-three to twenty-four per cent of English words in their passive vocabulary which means that, you know, their words that they read and they listen to and they understand but they don't really use them themselves.

    There is a percentage of English words that you need to know and understand and I invite you to focus on more specific and useful parts of English rather than feeling completely overwhelmed by this really huge and complicated language.

    有一部分英语单词你需要了解并且理解,所以我希望大家专注于特定的、更加有用的那部分,而不是被这庞大复杂的语言而吓坏了。

    简单来说,如果你知道十分之一的英文单词的话,你就和英语母语者水平差不多好了。

    To put it simply, if you know ten per cent of English words, you'll be as good as a native English speaker. So break that down for yourself, you know.

    自己把那些单词进行划分吧。先专攻前一千个单词,然后转移到另外三千个单词,五千个单词。

    我在描述区分享了一些非常有用的链接,所以如果你想要获得单词表和最常用的单词的话,那就点击描述区的链接吧。

    Focus on the first one thousand words then move on to the next three thousand, five thousand.

    I've shared some really useful links about this in the description box below so if you're interested in getting word lists and the most common uses of words, grab the links in the description.

    Now the second way to think about this is to think more specifically about how you use English.

    好的,那第二个方式就是更加明确地考虑你如何使用英语。在英语的某个特定领域变得流畅。

    So become fluent in that particular area of English. Be an English expert in the space that you need to use it.

    成为你需要使用的那部分的英语专家。如果你是一个自由平面设计师或者是网页开发者的话,你想要和国际客户进行合作,那你就需要在那个领域做到流畅,在你专业的领域。

    So if you're a freelance graphic designer or a web developer and you want to work with international clients, you need to become fluent in that area, in your area of expertise.

    What are the conversations that you're going to have with those clients?

    你要和那些客户进行什么对话呢?你们需要讨论什么话题?

    What topics do you need to discuss? What words do you need to express your ideas?

    你需要使用哪些词汇来表达你的观点?

    这就是你需要专攻的英语,当然也可以直接转化为你的兴趣和爱好。

    Now this is exactly the English that you need to focus on and this translates directly into your interests and your hobbies as well.

    If you're passionate about photography or growing vegetables or flying drones, you want to be able to talk about those things in English too, right?

    如果你对摄影、种植蔬菜或者是无人机超级感冒的话,你想要用英语来谈论这些话题,对吗?

    你想要遇见其他的说英语的人,他们也对这些东西感兴趣。

    You'll want to meet other English speakers who are also interested in those things. So focus on the vocabulary and the expressions that you need to do this.

    专注于你需要使用的那些词汇和表达。你需要找到你的同伴,那些和你一样充满激情的人。

    You need to find your people, others who are as passionate as you are. You need to join online groups and communities or even meet up in person if you can.

    你需要加入线上群体,如果可以的话甚至可以见个面。去试用一下Skillshare吧,我在本节课程开始的时候提到过的。

    Grab the Skillshare trial that I mentioned at the start of this lesson.

    Just take all of the courses in photography, learn as much as you can about the things that you love.

    参加所有的摄影课程,尽可能多地学习关于你喜欢的事情的一切。

    你可以听母语者谈论这些话题。

    You'll be able to listen to native speakers talking about the topic.

    You'll learn new words and expressions and ways of talking about your interests, right?

    你将会学到新的词汇和表达,还有讨论你的兴趣的方式,对吗?

    你需要让自己接触特定某种类型的英语。

    当然,毫无疑问的是提升流利度的最快方式就是住在说英语的国家,就可以被英语所包围,帮自己沉浸其中,但是如果你没有这样的机会的话,我们可以退而求其次,通过上课、节目和社群来让自己被英语所包围。

    You need to expose yourself to that particular type of English.

    Now the fastest way to increase your fluency is undoubtedly, to live in an English-speaking country where you're surrounded by it, where you can immerse yourself but if you haven't got that opportunity to do that, well the next best thing is to surround yourself with English through courses, through programs, through communities.

    Now if you really want to improve your fluency in a particular area, then find a tutor to work with you and specifically ask them to practise roleplays.

    如果你真的想要提升自己在某个领域的流畅度的话,那就找一个老师和你一起,尤其是要让他们和你进行角色扮演。

    角色扮演就是你假装在某个特定的情境之下。

    Now a roleplay is when you pretend that you're in a particular situation. It's like you're acting, you pretend that you're doing something, you're speaking the English that you would need to use in that situation.

    就像你在表演一下,假装你在做某件事情,你在说你在某种情境中用得到的英语。

    我的未婚夫Shah在我们学习西班牙语的时候就做得很好。

    Now my fiance Shah, did this brilliantly when we were studying in Spain.

    All he really wanted to be able to do in Spanish was speak to the butchers at the markets about the jamón, the regions, the pigs, what they were fed, what problems the farmers faced - that kind of thing.

    他就是想要西班牙语来和市场的小贩子说话,讨论一下火腿啊, 地区啊,猪猪啊,喂他们什么,农民面临着什么问题——就是这些。

    他需要知道如何谈论非常特定的话题,所以他让他的老师和他一起进行角色扮演。

    He needed to know how to talk about very specific topics so he asked his tutor to roleplay with him.

    She had to pretend that she was the butcher and have conversations with him about pigs and they practised again and again and again.

    她要假装自己就是小贩子,和他讨论猪的话题,他们一直在这样进行训练。

    他的导师超级赞,但是我敢肯定她绝对觉得他疯了。

    His tutor was wonderful but I'm sure she thought he was crazy. But after six weeks of practising, Shah went from being basically a beginner to being fluent in butcher Spanish which is completely hilarious but seriously, thinking about how this strategy could supercharge your English in a particular area, could be a really useful tool for you.

    但是在六周的练习之后,Shah的西班牙小贩语言已经从入门者水平达到了流利水平,这听起来还蛮好笑的,但是说实话,想一下这个策略真的能够迅速提升你在某一个领域的英语水平,这真的是一个非常有用的工具。

    我的意思是你可以把这个策略应用到任何的领域。

    I mean you can apply this to any area. If you work at a hotel, and you need to be able to speak to customers who are staying at the hotel in English, you really need to be fluent in a few very specific things.

    如果你在酒店工作的话,你需要能够用英语和住在酒店的顾客进行交流,那你就需要在一些特定的话题达到流利的程度。

    你需要流利地进行指路。

    You need to be fluent in giving good directions.

    You need to be fluent in offering assistance, you need to be fluent in helping them to pay their bill, that kind of thing.

    你需要流利地提供帮助,你需要流利地帮助他们付账带,诸如此类。

    你不需要知道很多关于经济、金融和农业的词汇。

    You don't need to know a whole lot of vocabulary about economics and finance and farming.

    It's absolutely possible to be fluent in the English that you need.

    在你需要的那部分英语达到流利水平是完全可能的。当然也是非常迅速的。

    如果你能专攻你需要变得流利的那部分英语的话,那就是你需要努力的方向,对吗?

    And reasonably quickly too.

    If you can focus on the English that you need to be fluent in and that is what you should be working towards, right?

    So I guess what I'm trying to say is that shifting the way that you think about fluency can make it seem more achievable, right?

    所以我猜我想要说的就是改变你对于流畅度的看法能够让其看起来更加容易达成,对吗?

    现在我想要大家在评论中告诉我你想自己哪个部分的英语变得流利起来?

    Now I want you to tell me in the comments what do you want to be English fluent in?

    What specific areas?

    哪个特定的领域?

    I might be able to make some extra vocabulary lessons to help, particularly if lots of people are asking around those topics.

    我或许可以再出几节课程来帮助大家,尤其是如果很多人都觉得这些话题需要帮助的话。

    I really hope that this lesson was helpful for you.

    我真的希望这节课能够帮到大家。

    I hope that you kept your mind open and we stayed curious through the lesson, allowing yourself to think of some of these different ideas, even if they sound a little different and I really encourage you to keep these different ideas in mind if you want to increase your fluency in English or in any language, then you need to think specifically about what you need and take action.

    希望大家能够敞开心扉,在本节课程的过程中一直保持好奇心,允许自己考虑一下不同的观点,尽管它们听起来可能有点点不同,我非常鼓励大家把这些观点内化于心,如果你真的想提升自己的英语流利度或者是任何语言的流利度的话,那你需要仔细思考自己到底需要什么,然后采取行动。

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  • 经济学人阅读|科技栏目 Million-mile car batteries are coming

    08.04|经济学人阅读|科技栏目 Million-mile car batteries are coming

    经济学人The Economist是一份英国的英文新闻周报,分八个版本于每周五向全球发行,编辑部位于伦敦,创办于1843年9月。

    经济学人是一本综合性新闻评论刊物,有商业、国家和地区、经济和金融、科学和技术五大类。其中文章文风紧凑且严谨,对语言精准运用,展现出一种克制的风趣幽默,常运用双关语调侃。

    经济学人对于英语考试的重要性不言而喻,其文章常常出现在雅思托福、SAT、GRE、GMAT、考研英语、四六级、MTI和CATTI的阅读理解真题中。

    今天给大家分享的是经济学人2020年8月1日期刊中科技栏目的第一篇:Million-mile car batteries are coming。

    这篇文章主要介绍了电动汽车的电池寿命问题,文章分析了汽车电池的老化原因,并提到了一些车企的应对措施,并称里程数可达百万英里的汽车电池即将问世。

    01

    Million-mile car batteries are coming

    里程达百万英里的汽车电池即将问世

    AS EVERY MOBILE-PHONE owner knows, after a year or so the battery starts to fade and the beast needs recharging more frequently. That is a nuisance, but a phone’s batteries can be replaced fairly cheaply—or the whole handset traded in for the latest model. An electric car, however, is a much bigger investment. And batteries are its priciest component, representing around 30% of an average mid-size vehicle. Apart from increasing the risk of running out of juice and leaving a driver stranded, a deteriorating battery quickly destroys a car’s second-hand value.

    每一个智能手机的用户都知道,手机使用了一年之后,电池容量会开始缩小,需要更频繁地充电。 这是个很麻烦的事情,但是更换手机的电池十分便宜且方便,或者可以换一台最新型号的手机。然而,电动汽车是一项更大的投入。电池是一辆电动车最值钱的组件,大约占了一辆普通中型车辆价值的30%。电池的不断老化不仅会增加驾驶员在电池用尽后陷入困境的风险,还会迅速破坏汽车的二手价值。

    02

    To provide buyers with some peace of mind, carmakers guarantee their batteries, typically for eight years or around 200,000km. Producers are now, though, planning to go much further than that, with the launch of “million mile” (1.6m kilometre) batteries. Zeng Yuqun, the boss of Contemporary Amperex Technology, a giant Chinese firm which produces batteries for a number of carmakers, said in June that his company was ready to start manufacturing batteries which would last for 16 years or 2m kilometres. Elon Musk has hinted that Tesla, a Californian maker of electric vehicles of which he is boss, has a million-mile battery in the works. Rumours suggest this could be unveiled in September. And over in Detroit, General Motors (GM) is in the final stages of developing an advanced battery which it says has similar longevity.

    为了使购买者安心,汽车制造商通常会承诺保修电池8年或20万公里。不过,生产商现在正计划进一步研发推出可以行驶“百万英里”(160万公里)电池。一家为多家汽车制造商生产电池的中国大型企业——当代安培科技的老板曾玉群在6月表示,他的公司已做好准备开始生产寿命长达16年或200万公里的电池。 加利福尼亚电动汽车制造商特斯拉的老板伊隆·马斯克暗示,特斯拉正在开发里程达一百万英里的电池。 有传言称这可能会在9月揭晓。 在底特律,通用汽车正处于开发高级电池的最后阶段,据说该电池也具有这么长的使用寿命。

    03

    “It’s a great catchphrase; the million-mile battery,” says George Crabtree, director of the Joint Centre for Energy Storage Research at Argonne National Laboratory, near Chicago. “But the fact you can drive a million miles may not be the most relevant parameter to look at.” Thrash a car and its battery will deteriorate faster. Regular fast-charging also reduces battery life, as do overcharging and deep discharging. Driving in extremely hot or cold weather does not help either. And battery life will diminish even if you just leave the car in the garage. The real point of a million-mile battery is that the technological advances required to make it possible will deal with these things as well.

    “这是一个很好的口号; 里程数可达百万英里的电池。”位于芝加哥附近的阿贡国家实验室联合储能研究中心主任乔治·克拉布特里说道:“但是,您可以行驶一百万英里这一事实可能并不是要最需要考虑的相关参数。” 汽车被废弃后,其电池会老化得更快。定期的快速充电、过度充电和深度放电也会缩短电池寿命。 在极热或极冷的天气下驾驶也无济于事。即便您只是将汽车停放在车库,电池的寿命也会减少。里程数达一百万英里的电池的真正意义在于,为了实现这一目标的科技进步将能解决这些问题。

    04

    The lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries which power electric cars age in two ways: with time and with use. Battery-makers call time-dependent ageing “calendar ageing”. It is a consequence of the gradual degradation of some of the materials employed in battery construction. This degradation reduces a battery’s ability to hold a charge—though even here it is possible to ameliorate the problem to a certain extent. Leaving a car with a fully rather than partly charged battery, for example, can increase the rate of calendar ageing.

    为电动汽车提供动力的锂离子电池有两种老化方式:随着时间和使用时间的增长。 电池制造商称与时间相关的老化为“时间老化”。 这是电池构造中使用的某些材料逐渐老化的结果。这种老化会降低电池的充电能力,尽管在这种情况下,也可以在一定程度上改善这一问题。例如,让电池完全充满而不是只充一部分电可以增加时间老化的概率。

    05

    Use-dependent ageing is a consequence of the number of discharge-recharge cycles a battery goes through. It is caused by the complex chemical reactions that take place when a battery is operating. Some of these are essential to a battery’s job of storing and releasing energy. “But there are also side reactions that you can’t stop and some of those are harmful,” explains Dr Crabtree.

    As a battery discharges, lithium ions (lithium atoms with an electron missing) are created at one electrode, the anode. These then shuttle through a liquid electrolyte to a second electrode, the cathode. The electrons stripped away at the anode, meanwhile, travel towards the cathode along an external electrical circuit, which powers the car. Ions and electrons are reunited at the cathode and remain there until the battery is plugged into a charger and the process is reversed.

    与使用相关的老化是电池经过多次充放电循环的结果。 这是由电池工作时发生的复杂化学反应引起的。 其中一些化学反应对于电量的存储和释放至关重要。 克拉布特里博士解释说:“但是,还有一些副反应是你无法阻止的,其中一些是有害的。”

    随着电池放电,锂离子(缺少电子的锂原子)在一个阳极处产生。 然后它们通过液体电解质穿梭到阴极。 同时,在阳极处剥离的电子沿着外部电路向阴极移动,从而为汽车供电。 离子和电子在阴极重新结合,并保持在那里,直到将电池插入充电器并逆转该过程为止。

    06

    Each cycle of discharge and recharge takes its toll. Lithium is so highly reactive that stopping it getting tied up in other chemical compounds while a battery is in use is hard. Even a small amount of diversion per cycle adds up, reducing the amount of the element available to store energy. On top of this, charging up faster than ions can be absorbed by the anode may result in a layer of lithium “plating” building up on the anode’s surface, reducing its storage capacity.

    Plating becomes yet more of a problem if it leads to the development of structures called dendrites. These are small, finger-like fibres which project into the electrolyte from points on the anode where plating is especially elevated. If a dendrite reaches the cathode the battery will short-circuit, causing it to heat up rapidly and possibly catch fire. Other side reactions can have similarly adverse consequences.

    放电和充电的每个循环都会对电池的电量造成损失。锂具有很高的反应活性,因此很难在电池使用过程中阻止它与其他化合物融合在一起。 即使每个过程中减少的锂的数量加起来,可用于存储能量的元素数量也就减少了。最重要的是,充电速度快于离子被阳极吸收的速度,这可能会导致在阳极表面堆积一层锂“镀层”,从而降低电池的存储容量。

    如果电镀导致树枝状晶体的形成,那么就是一个更大的问题了。它们是细小的指状纤维,会从阳极上的镀层伸入电解质中。一旦树枝状晶体到达阴极,电池将短路,并导致电池迅速发热且可能着火。其他的副反应也可能产生类似的不良后果。

    07

    It is difficult to generalise about the extent to which these processes reduce a battery’s lifetime. Not only does it depend on how that battery is used, but also how it is made. Li-ion cells come in different forms and a variety of chemistries, some of which have not been around long enough in cars for people to know for sure how long they will last. Nor is there any independent testing, says Dr Crabtree.

    Nevertheless, the industry has a few rules of thumb. Once a battery’s capacity falls below 80% of its starting value, it is generally thought no longer suitable for use in vehicles. Some reckon that, on average, Li-ion batteries lose 2% of their capacity a year. This may not seem much, but by the time a vehicle is six years old it could mean it is halfway through its useful life.

    对于充电过程会在多大程度上缩短电池的使用寿命,这个问题很难一概而论。它不仅取决于电池的使用方式,还取决于电池的制造方式。Crabtree博士说:锂离子电池有很多不同的形状和多种化学形式,其中一些电池形式由于在汽车中的使用时间还不够长,人们也无法确定它们的寿命有多长,也没有任何针对电池的独立测试。

    但是,该行业还是有一些经验法则的。一旦电池的容量下降到其初始值的80%以下,通常认为这块电池便不能再给车辆使用了。有人认为,锂离子电池平均每年会损失2%的电量。这看起来可能并不多,但是到了六年车龄的时候,这便意味着车的使用寿命已经只剩下了一半。

    08

    Battery technology is improving all the time. As a consequence, so are calendar and use-dependent lifetimes. Getting direct experience of how electric cars are used is helping researchers come up with ways to mitigate some of the side reactions, says Tim Grewe, the head of GM’s electrification strategy. The company employs remote, “telematic” monitoring to keep track of how batteries are performing in its cars, and also takes back some batteries from high-mileage drivers and those living in extreme environments, such as deserts and mountainous regions, for analysis.

    Dealing with impurities which get into batteries helps to extend their lives. Water, for example, reacts with salts in the electrolyte to form an acid, which attacks the electrodes. To prevent this, GM has developed an additive made from a type of material called a zeolite. Zeolites are molecular sponges. GM’s version serves to mop up any moisture which enters a battery cell.

    电池技术一直在进步。 因此,时间老化和与使用老化的寿命也在延长。 通用汽车电气化战略负责人蒂姆格雷威表示,获得使用电动汽车的直接经验有助于研究人员找到减缓某些副反应的方法。该公司采用“远程”监测功能来跟踪电池在汽车中的运行情况,并从高里程驾驶员和生活在沙漠和山区等极端环境中的驾驶员那里取回一些电池进行分析。

    处理电池中的杂质有助于延长其寿命。例如,水与电解质中的盐会发生化学反应形成酸,从而腐蚀电极。 为了防止这种情况发生,通用汽车开发了由一种被称为沸石的材料制成的添加剂。沸石是分子海绵。他可以清除电池中的水分。

    09

    Adding a little aluminium to a nickel-cobalt-manganese cathode, a type that is widely used in Li-ion batteries, saves on cobalt, the most expensive ingredient in a battery. But the aluminium delivers other benefits as well, adds Mr Grewe. It boosts the battery’s energy density, meaning a car can travel farther on a single charge. It also makes the battery last longer.

    GM will be using these cathodes in a new battery, called Ultium, that it has developed in partnership with LG Chem, a South Korean firm. Ultium batteries, production of which is planned to start next year at a factory in Ohio, should provide electric cars with single-charge ranges of 650km or more. That compares with the 400km range which might these days reasonably be expected from a mid-size electric car. Asked if the Ultium is a million-mile battery, Mr Grewe replied, “Many customers could get that.”

    向镍钴锰阴极(这是锂离子电池中广泛使用的阴极)中添加少量铝,可以节省钴(一种电池中最昂贵的成分)。Grewe先生补充说:铝还具有其他优势,它可以提高电池的电量密度,这意味着汽车充一次电可行驶更远的路程。这也使电池的使用寿命更长。

    通用汽车将在与韩国公司LG Chem合作开发的一种新型电池Ultium,其电池中就会使用这些阴极。他们计划于明年在俄亥俄州的工厂开始生产的铀电池,能为电动汽车提供650km或更长的续航里程。相比之下,期望中型电动汽车实现400公里的续航里程才是合理的。当被问及Ultium是否是可以达到一百万英里里程数的电池时,格雷威先生回答说:“许多客户都能得到它。”

    10

    As a marketing device, the million-mile battery will give electric-car buyers—even those never likely to put a million miles on the clock—more confidence that their batteries are robust. But some users might truly desire a lifetime range that great.

    Jeff Dahn, who leads a group of battery researchers at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada, who are sponsored by Tesla, points out that autonomous electric vehicles like “robo taxis” could clock up vast mileages by operating around the clock. So, too, would long-haul lorries and electric buses. And some cars may end up being more than just means of transport. Plans are afoot to let electric-vehicle owners connect their jalopies to the grid in a way that will store surplus electricity generated in times of plenty by wind and sunshine and release it during hours of peak demand, with the owner collecting a fee for doing so. That means these grid-buffering vehicles will be racking up lots of charging cycles even when they are not moving.

    作为一种营销手段,里程数达百万英里的电池将使电动汽车的购买者(甚至是那些从未想要开一百万英里路的人)更加自信,因为他们的电池坚固耐用。当然某些用户可能确实希望拥有如此长使用寿命的电动汽车。

    由特斯拉赞助的加拿大哈利法克斯的达尔豪西大学(Dalhousie University)电池研究小组的负责人杰夫·戴恩指出:诸如“无人出租车”之类的自动驾驶电动汽车可以通过昼夜不停地行驶来获得更大的行驶里程。长途卡车和电动巴士也是如此。而且有些汽车最终可能不只是交通工具。他们正在制定计划,使电动汽车的所有者将自己的jalopies连接到电网,从而可以存储在日照充足时产生的多余电力,并在需求高峰时段将其释放,并可为此收取费用。这意味着这些车辆即使不行驶也将产生很多的充电周期。

    11

    Nor are million-mile batteries the limit of engineers’ aspirations. The next objective is to replace Li-ions’ liquid electrolytes with solid ones. That would keep the ions under stricter control and allow even longer driving ranges. This could make a two-million-mile battery a feasible objective. If that day comes, the tables would have been turned. From being the first part of a car to fail, its battery will have become the last.

    里程数达百万英里的电池并不是工程师追求的极限。他们的下一个目标是用固体电解质代替锂离子液体电解质。 这将让离子受到更严格的控制,并提供更长的行驶距离。这可能使里程数达200万英里的电池成为可行的目标。 如果那一天到来,汽车行业将会被改写。电动汽车的电池将从汽车被废弃的第一个组件,成为最后一个。

    经济学人一般目录大纲:

    The world this week:简单梳理本周的时事Leaders:社论,对本周热点事件进行评论Briefing:简报,对一个特定热点话题深度讨论Letter:读者来信,对往期文章的评论Sections:各大洲及中美英三国的本周热点事件报道Business:商业新闻Finances and economics:财经新闻Science and technology:科技新闻Books and arts:文化书籍,书评和文化现象讨论Economic and financial indicators:商业及财经指数

    Buttonwood:金融专栏Schumpeter:商业专栏Bartleby:职场专栏Bagehot:英国专栏Charlemagne:欧洲专栏Lexington:美国专栏Banyan:亚洲专栏

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